Screen Time and Child Development: The Science

Have you ever found yourself handing over your smartphone to your fussy toddler in a restaurant, feeling that mix of relief and guilt wash over you? You’re not alone. Screen time and child development have become inextricably linked in modern parenting conversations. A staggering 98% of children under 8 in the United States now live in homes with mobile devices, with average screen time for preschoolers reaching 2.5 hours daily, according to 2020 data from Common Sense Media. What exactly is all this glowing blue light doing to developing minds? And why has this question become so urgent right now?

After reading this evidence-based exploration, you’ll understand what current research actually tells us about screens’ impact on children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. More importantly, you’ll gain practical strategies for creating healthy digital boundaries that work in the real world of 21st-century parenting.

The Digital Landscape: How Screen Use Has Transformed Childhood

The relationship between children’s development and screen exposure has fundamentally changed over the past decade. When many of us were growing up, screen time meant Saturday morning cartoons or the family television in the living room. Today’s children navigate a vastly different digital ecosystem.

From Passive to Interactive: The Evolution of Children’s Media

Children’s relationship with screens has undergone a remarkable transformation. In the 1970s and 1980s, screen time primarily involved passive television viewing at scheduled times. Fast forward to 2025, and we’ve witnessed what researchers at the Oxford Internet Institute call a “fundamental shift in engagement patterns.” Today’s children don’t just consume content—they create it, share it, and interact with it across multiple platforms simultaneously.

“We’ve moved from asking whether screen time is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ to recognizing that this framing itself is obsolete,” explains Dr. Alicia Montgomery, developmental psychologist at the University of Michigan. “The more relevant questions involve how, when, and what type of digital engagement children experience.”

A case study from Seattle illustrates this shift perfectly. The Seattle Digital Childhood Project (2022) followed 150 families over three years, documenting how children aged 3-10 engaged with technology. Researchers found that by age 5, children were regularly using an average of four different digital platforms, with interactions ranging from video calls with grandparents to educational games and content creation. This multi-modal engagement represents a fundamentally different developmental context than previous generations experienced.

The Pandemic Effect: Accelerated Digital Integration

If screen use was already rising steadily before 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic functioned as a hyperdrive button for digital integration into children’s lives. When we examine the data, the transformation is striking: average daily screen time among school-aged children increased by 52% between March 2020 and December 2021, according to the longitudinal COVID-19 and Child Digital Wellbeing Study.

For many families, screens became lifelines—providing education, social connection, and entertainment during periods of isolation. Seven-year-old Emma from Toronto represents countless children whose primary educational and social experiences suddenly shifted online. “Before the pandemic, we limited screens pretty strictly,” explains her mother, Janine. “Then overnight, screens became how she attended school, saw her friends, talked to her grandparents, and maintained any sense of normalcy.”

This massive natural experiment in increased screen exposure has provided researchers with unprecedented opportunities to study impacts, though many long-term effects remain unknown. As Dr. Raymond Chen of Stanford’s Digital Child Laboratory notes, “We’re still collecting the data on this generational shift. The pandemic essentially created an unplanned global study on intensive digital engagement during key developmental windows.”

Digital Inequality: Access and Outcomes

Any discussion of screen time’s relationship to development must acknowledge the stark disparities in both access and quality of digital experiences. When we look at households across the socioeconomic spectrum in countries like the United States and United Kingdom, a troubling pattern emerges.

The “digital divide” has evolved from simple questions of access to more complex issues of engagement quality. While 95% of American households with school-aged children now report having broadband internet (up from 82% in 2019), significant differences exist in:

• Device quality and reliability.
• Parent digital literacy and mediation capacity.
• Available physical space for technology use.
• Access to high-quality, developmentally appropriate content.

A 2022 study from the Urban Institute documented how these disparities manifest: children from lower-income households were three times more likely to use technology primarily for passive entertainment rather than interactive or educational purposes compared to their more affluent peers. This difference wasn’t explained by parental attitudes but rather by resources, working conditions, and support systems.

“We’ve observed that it’s not just about having a tablet or internet connection,” explains Dr. Mariana Lopez, lead researcher on the digital equity project at Columbia University. “It’s about whether parents have the time, knowledge, and resources to guide their children’s digital experiences in enriching directions.”

What Science Tells Us: Screen Time and Developmental Domains

When examining the relationship between screen exposure and child development, research points to nuanced effects across various developmental domains. Let’s break down what we currently understand about these impacts.

Cognitive Development: Mixed Evidence and Context Matters

The evidence regarding screens’ impact on cognitive development presents a complex picture that defies simple conclusions. Executive function—the set of mental skills including working memory, flexible thinking, and self-control—appears particularly susceptible to both benefits and harms from digital engagement.

Screens and Cognitive Development

A groundbreaking 2021 study published in JAMA Pediatrics used advanced neuroimaging to examine brain development in 553 children aged 3-5 with varying levels of screen exposure. The results showed differences in white matter development in regions associated with language processing and executive function. However, these differences were significantly mediated by how screens were used—with interactive, educational content showing neutral or slightly positive associations compared to passive consumption.

The case of the Martin family from Minneapolis demonstrates how context shapes outcomes. Their twins, now 8, had very different responses to similar digital exposures. “Aiden thrives with educational apps and coding games—we’ve seen his problem-solving skills and persistence improve dramatically,” reports their father. “But these same activities frustrate his brother Lucas, who benefits more from hands-on building and outdoor play.” This observation aligns with research on individual differences in learning styles and reminds us that developmental impacts are rarely one-size-fits-all.

Language Acquisition: Critical Windows and Interactive Elements

Language development represents one of the most extensively studied areas regarding screen time impacts on child development. Here, the evidence points to a clear distinction between passive viewing and interactive communication.

For children under 24 months, studies consistently show that passive screen viewing does not support language acquisition in the same way that live human interaction does. The “video deficit” phenomenon—where infants and toddlers learn significantly less from video demonstrations than from live interactions—has been repeatedly demonstrated in laboratory settings.

Dr. Rachel Montgomery’s 2021 longitudinal study of 275 families found that toddlers exposed primarily to background television showed vocabulary acquisition rates approximately 15% lower than peers with limited background TV. However, video chatting with relatives showed no negative effects and possibly slight benefits when adults actively engaged the child.

“What we’re seeing is that technology itself isn’t inherently problematic for language development,” Dr. Montgomery explains. “Rather, it’s whether the technology facilitates or hinders rich linguistic exchanges between children and responsive caregivers.”

The case of 4-year-old Jayden illustrates this principle. Diagnosed with expressive language delay at age 2, his speech therapist incorporated carefully selected interactive apps into therapy sessions. “We were hesitant at first,” his mother recalls, “but the difference was remarkable. The interactive stories with voice recording features gave him confidence to practice new words in a low-pressure environment.” After six months, Jayden’s expressive vocabulary had doubled—a result his therapist attributes to the combination of technology, professional guidance, and consistent practice at home.

Social-Emotional Development: Relationships in Digital Contexts

The relationship between screen use and children’s social-emotional development represents perhaps the most concerning area for many parents and educators. Here, research suggests more cautionary findings, particularly regarding empathy development and emotional regulation.

A comprehensive meta-analysis published in Developmental Psychology in 2021 examined 72 studies involving over 23,000 children and found significant correlations between high levels of recreational screen time (>3 hours daily) and challenges with:

• Emotion recognition accuracy.
• Empathic responding.
• Frustration tolerance.
• Social problem-solving.

However, these associations were substantially weaker when researchers controlled for factors like content type, co-viewing practices, and family communication patterns.

Eleven-year-old Sophia’s experience with social media illustrates these complexities. Her mother describes how an initially positive experience with a creativity platform became problematic: “She started creating digital art and sharing it, which boosted her confidence tremendously. But within a few months, she became fixated on likes and comments, having meltdowns over perceived online slights.” After implementing stricter boundaries and regular discussions about digital social dynamics, Sophia developed healthier online habits.

“We’ve consistently found that children need scaffolding to navigate digital social contexts just as they do physical ones,” explains Dr. Harrison Wong, clinical psychologist specializing in digital wellbeing. “The mistake many parents make is assuming kids will naturally develop these skills without guidance.”

The Role of Content and Context: Not All Screen Time Is Created Equal

When discussing screen time effects on development, the conversation must move beyond simple duration metrics to examine the critical factors of content quality and viewing context.

Content Quality: Educational vs. Entertainment Media

Research increasingly demonstrates that content characteristics significantly mediate developmental outcomes. High-quality educational programming designed with developmental principles in mind shows markedly different effects than commercial entertainment.

The landmark “Learning at Home” study (2020-2022) tracked 412 preschoolers across the UK and found that children who regularly engaged with well-designed educational content showed vocabulary gains averaging 22% higher than peers who primarily consumed entertainment media, even when controlling for total screen time and socioeconomic factors.

What distinguishes developmentally supportive content? Research points to several key elements:

• Age-appropriate pacing (slower for younger children).
• Clear narrative structure without excessive tangents.
• Limited commercial interruptions.
• Educational goals integrated naturally into engaging stories.
• Characters modeling prosocial behaviors and problem-solving.
• Opportunities for viewer participation.

The contrast between different content types becomes clear when examining the Jones family’s experience with their 5-year-old daughter. “We noticed that after watching certain fast-paced cartoons, Zoe would be wired and have trouble transitioning to other activities,” her father explains. “But after educational programs with similar screen time, she often wanted to extend the learning through related activities, like drawing pictures of animals she’d learned about.”

Co-Viewing and Mediation: The Adult Factor

Perhaps no factor has shown more consistent positive influence on child development and screen use outcomes than active adult mediation. The research is clear: how adults engage with children around technology significantly shapes its developmental impact.

A 2022 study from the University of British Columbia followed 189 parent-child dyads over 18 months, documenting different mediation approaches. Children whose parents practiced “active mediation”—regularly discussing content, asking questions, and making connections to real-life experiences—showed significantly better outcomes in:

• Critical thinking skills.
• Transfer of knowledge to non-screen contexts.
• Prosocial behavior.
• Media literacy development.

This stands in stark contrast to households where adults were physically present during screen use but engaged in their own activities (often on separate devices).

The experience of 6-year-old Marcus demonstrates the transformative potential of active mediation. Initially struggling with aggressive behavior after video game sessions, his parents implemented a new approach: playing selected games together, discussing character choices and consequences, and setting clear boundaries. “The difference was night and day,” his mother reports. “Not only did the behavioral issues resolve, but the games became opportunities for him to practice planning, problem-solving, and even emotional regulation when things didn’t go as expected.”

Digital Balance: Integration with Other Activities

When we examine successful approaches to healthy screen use and development, one consistent finding emerges: digital experiences must be balanced within a diverse activity landscape. The “displacement hypothesis” suggests that screen time’s negative impacts often stem not from inherent harm but from displacing other essential developmental activities.

The 2022 “Balanced Play Initiative” study conducted across 45 elementary schools found that children with varied activity profiles—including both digital and non-digital experiences—showed optimal developmental outcomes across cognitive, physical, and social measures. Interestingly, both extremely low and extremely high technology users showed comparative disadvantages in different domains.

“What we’re finding is that technology, when thoughtfully integrated into a balanced childhood, can enhance rather than hinder development,” explains Dr. Lisa Thornton, pediatrician and digital health researcher. “The problems arise when screens displace physical activity, face-to-face social interaction, creative play, or adequate sleep.”

The Williams family’s approach exemplifies this balanced integration. Their home operates on what they call the “full plate principle”—ensuring their children’s lives include regular physical activity, unstructured play, family connection, creative pursuits, and academic engagement before adding recreational screen time. “We don’t obsess over exact minutes,” explains the mother. “Instead, we make sure other needs are met first, then allow technology to fill appropriate spaces.”

Recognizing Warning Signs: When to Adjust Digital Habits

As professionals working with families, we’ve observed that many parents struggle to distinguish between normal adjustment to technology and genuinely problematic patterns. Understanding the warning signs of unhealthy screen use affecting child development can help families intervene early.

Behavioral Red Flags: Beyond Typical Tantrums

While occasional resistance to screen transitions is normal, certain behavioral patterns warrant closer attention. Based on clinical observations and research, these signs suggest potentially problematic screen habits:

1. Intense, prolonged tantrums specifically related to device removal that exceed the child’s typical emotional reactions to other disappointments.
2. Significant sleep disruption including difficulty falling asleep, night waking, or reported nightmares related to digital content.
3. Decreased interest in previously enjoyed non-screen activities.
4. Social withdrawal or reduced desire for face-to-face interaction.
5. Irritability, restlessness, or attention difficulties that improve during periods without screens.

Nine-year-old Ethan’s case illustrates how these warning signs can manifest. His parents noticed his previously enjoyed soccer practice had become a source of complaints and resistance, coinciding with increased gaming time. “He’d become irritable, argumentative, and struggled to focus on homework,” his father reports. “What really alarmed us was finding him secretly using his tablet at 2 AM on a school night.” After implementing a digital reset (discussed below), the family established healthier patterns that resolved these concerning behaviors.

Physical and Developmental Concerns

Certain physical and developmental patterns may also indicate problematic screen habits requiring adjustment:

• Delayed language milestones in young children with heavy screen exposure.
• Persistent physical complaints including headaches, eye strain, or hand/wrist discomfort.
• Compromised posture or physical development concerns related to sedentary behavior.
• Disrupted eating patterns including mindless eating during screen use or skipped meals to continue digital activities.

For 12-year-old Mia, chronic headaches and deteriorating grades prompted a pediatrician visit. “Her doctor asked about screen use, and we realized she was spending nearly all her free time on social media,” her mother explains. “The headaches were from a combination of eye strain, poor posture, and reduced sleep quality.” A comprehensive approach addressing all these factors, including evening screen restrictions and regular vision breaks, resolved her symptoms within weeks.

Implementing a Digital Reset: When and How

When warning signs persist despite moderate interventions, a structured “digital reset” may be necessary. This temporary but significant reduction in screen access can help reset habits and clarify the relationship between digital use and concerning symptoms.

A Step-by-Step Digital Reset Guide:

1. Prepare thoughtfully: Explain the reset as a health measure, not punishment.
2. Set a defined timeframe: Typically 2-4 weeks.
3. Eliminate non-essential screen use completely during the initial phase.
4. Plan alternative activities to fill newly available time.
5. Observe and document changes in behavior, sleep, mood, and social interactions.
6. Gradually reintroduce select digital activities with clear boundaries.
7. Maintain open communication about feelings and observations throughout the process.

The Thompson family’s experience demonstrates this approach’s effectiveness. After noticing their 7-year-old daughter becoming increasingly anxious and having trouble sleeping, they implemented a three-week reset. “The first few days were challenging,” her mother recalls. “But by the second week, we saw dramatic improvements in her sleep, mood, and creativity. When we reintroduced limited screen time, we had a much clearer understanding of which activities were problematic for her and which were actually beneficial.”

Practical Strategies: Building Healthy Digital Habits

Understanding the research on screen time and child development is important, but translating that knowledge into practical, sustainable family practices is equally crucial. Let’s explore evidence-based strategies that work in real-world family contexts.

Age-Appropriate Guidelines: Beyond One-Size-Fits-All Rules

While various organizations provide screen time recommendations, the most current research suggests individualized approaches based on developmental stage rather than strict time limits. Here’s a developmentally-informed framework:

Infants and Toddlers (0-24 months):

• Prioritize in-person interaction and physical exploration.
• If digital media is used, choose video chatting with loved ones.
• Avoid background television and solo device use.
• Focus on relationship-based activities rather than “educational” apps.

Preschoolers (2-5 years):

• Limit screen entertainment to 1 hour daily of high-quality content.
• Emphasize co-viewing and discussion.
• Choose interactive rather than passive experiences.
• Ensure ample time for physical play and hands-on exploration.
• Begin teaching basic concepts of healthy technology use.

School-Age Children (6-12 years):

• Develop a Family Media Plan with clear boundaries and expectations.
• Prioritize educational content and creative applications.
• Establish tech-free zones (meals, bedrooms) and times.
• Teach digital literacy and critical evaluation skills.
• Model healthy technology habits.
• Monitor content and be actively involved in digital world introduction.

Adolescents (13+ years):

• Shift from strict time limits to emphasis on balance and appropriate content.
• Maintain open communication about online experiences.
• Collaborate on reasonable boundaries rather than imposing rules.
• Discuss digital citizenship, privacy, and online safety regularly.
• Continue tech-free zones and times, particularly around sleep.
• Focus on developing self-regulation skills for long-term success.

For the Rodriguez family, this developmental approach proved transformative. “We were locked in constant battles with our 11-year-old about screen time,” the father explains. “When we shifted from arguing about minutes to focusing on balance and content quality, everything improved. Now we ask: Has homework been completed? Have you been physically active today? Is this content appropriate? This approach grows with him and teaches the decision-making he’ll need as a teenager.”

Creating a Family Media Plan: Structure with Flexibility

Research consistently shows that families with intentional, explicit media plans report healthier digital habits and fewer conflicts around technology. The most effective plans share several key characteristics:

1. Collaborative development with age-appropriate input from children.
2. Clear boundaries that address when, where, what, and how devices are used.
3. Logical consequences for boundary violations that relate directly to the behavior.
4. Regular reassessment as children develop and family circumstances change.
5. Emphasis on values rather than just restrictions.

The American Academy of Pediatrics offers excellent templates, but the Wright family’s personalized approach demonstrates these principles in action. Their family media plan includes:

• Device-free dinner table and bedrooms.
• Completion of responsibilities (homework, chores, physical activity) before recreational screen time.
• Content guidelines appropriate to each child’s age and sensitivity.
• Weekly family movie night as positive screen time together.
• Regular “tech sabbath” days for connecting without devices.
• Adjustments for special circumstances (travel, illness, etc.).

“The key has been consistency with room for occasional flexibility,” explains the mother. “Our kids understand both the ‘what’ and the ‘why’ behind our guidelines, which has reduced resistance dramatically.”

Digital Literacy: Teaching Critical Consumption Skills

Perhaps the most valuable long-term strategy for healthy screen use and child development involves actively teaching children to become critical consumers and creators of digital content. Research indicates that children as young as 5 can begin developing these essential skills.

Effective digital literacy education includes age-appropriate discussions of:

• How to evaluate information sources for reliability.
• Recognition of advertising and persuasive content.
• Understanding of digital footprints and privacy concepts.
• Awareness of how media can influence emotions and behaviors.
• Ethical creation and sharing of content.

The Bennett family incorporated these discussions naturally into their media routines. “When watching videos, we started asking simple questions like ‘Do you think this is real or pretend?’ and ‘How can we tell?'” their father describes. “As the kids got older, the questions became more sophisticated. Now our teenagers independently question content and consider sources before sharing information—skills that serve them well beyond the digital world.”

Looking Forward: Screens in a Balanced Childhood

As we navigate the complex relationship between screen time and healthy development, several important themes emerge that can guide our approach as parents, educators, and society.

The Mentorship Model: From Restriction to Guidance

The most promising framework for addressing children’s digital lives may be what researchers increasingly call the “media mentorship model.” This approach recognizes that our goal isn’t raising children who simply use screens less, but rather developing young people who use technology intentionally, ethically, and in service of their broader development.

“The restriction-focused approach made sense when screens were primarily entertainment vehicles,” explains Dr. Michael Levine, who studies digital learning environments. “But in today’s world, where technology is integrated into education, social connection, creativity, and future careers, we need to shift toward mentorship. This means actively guiding children through digital experiences, helping them develop healthy habits, and gradually transferring responsibility as they mature.”

This model aligns with what we know about other developmental domains. Just as we wouldn’t expect children to develop healthy eating habits without guidance and modeling, we shouldn’t expect them to develop healthy digital habits without intentional mentorship.

Designing Better Digital Ecosystems for Children

While family-level strategies are essential, we must also acknowledge the broader digital environment in which children are developing. The current digital landscape often works against healthy development through:

• Engagement-maximizing algorithms that capitalize on developing brains’ vulnerability to novelty and reward.
• Advertising models that monetize attention regardless of content quality.
• Design features that deliberately foster habitual use rather than intentional engagement.
• Limited transparency that hinders parental oversight and involvement.

As professionals concerned with child development in the digital age, we advocate for policy approaches that better protect children online, including:

• Age-appropriate design requirements for platforms used by children.
• Greater transparency around algorithmic content delivery.
• Stronger data protection for young users.
• Investment in high-quality, educational digital content.
• Research funding to better understand long-term developmental impacts.

These systemic changes would create digital environments that work with rather than against families’ efforts to raise healthy children.

Finding Balance: Integration Rather Than Opposition

Finally, we believe the most promising path forward involves viewing technology as one component of a balanced childhood rather than an opposing force to development. The evidence increasingly supports integration rather than isolation approaches.

The most successful families we’ve worked with approach technology not as an enemy to be feared or a friend to be embraced uncritically, but as a tool to be wielded with purpose. They ask: How can digital experiences enhance our family values and children’s development while minimizing potential harms?

Seven-year-old Olivia’s experience captures this balanced integration beautifully. Her parents describe how she uses technology to extend her passionate interest in marine biology: “She uses apps to identify fish species during our beach visits, watches documentaries that spark incredible questions, and recently used a drawing program to create a detailed ocean ecosystem poster for her science fair. But she also knows when to put devices away and experience the real world directly.”

This integration approach acknowledges both the very real concerns about excessive or inappropriate screen use and the genuine opportunities technology offers for learning, connection, and creativity.

Conclusion: Navigating the Digital Landscape Together

As we’ve explored throughout this examination of screen time and child development, the relationship between digital technology and children’s wellbeing is nuanced, contextual, and evolving. The research to date suggests neither uncritical acceptance nor wholesale rejection of screens serves children’s best interests.

Instead, we’ve seen how factors including content quality, adult mediation, individual differences, and overall activity balance profoundly shape developmental outcomes. We’ve examined practical strategies for recognizing problematic patterns and establishing healthier digital habits. And we’ve considered broader systemic approaches that could better support families in navigating this complex terrain.

What emerges most clearly is that children need thoughtful guidance from adults who understand both developmental needs and the digital landscape. As Dr. Jennifer Phillips, developmental psychologist at UCLA, aptly states: “Technology itself is neither inherently harmful nor beneficial to development. What matters is how it’s integrated into children’s lives—whether it connects or disconnects, whether it expands or constrains their world, whether it complements or displaces essential experiences.”

Looking ahead, we anticipate continued research will further clarify how different digital experiences affect various developmental domains, helping refine our understanding of both risks and opportunities. But we needn’t wait for perfect information before taking thoughtful action.

By approaching technology with informed intentionality rather than fear or resignation, we can help children develop not just healthy screen habits but the critical thinking, self-regulation, and media literacy skills they’ll need to navigate an increasingly digital future. The goal isn’t to raise children who simply use screens less, but rather young people who use technology purposefully, ethically, and in ways that enhance rather than diminish their development and relationships.

What steps will you take today to create a healthier digital balance in your family? The research is clear that even small changes—like device-free meals or bedtime reading routines—can significantly impact development. We encourage you to start with one manageable shift and build from there. The digital landscape may be complex, but with thoughtful guidance, children can learn to navigate it successfully.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q: Is all screen time harmful for young children? A: No. Research indicates that content quality, context, and co-viewing significantly mediate outcomes. High-quality, age-appropriate content with adult engagement shows different effects than passive consumption of entertainment media.

Q: What’s the single most important thing parents can do regarding children’s screen use? A: Active mediation—engaging with children about digital content through questions, discussions, and connections to real life—consistently shows the strongest positive impact across studies.

Q: How do I know if my child’s screen use is becoming problematic? A: Warning signs include intense tantrums when devices are removed, sleep disruption, decreased interest in other activities, withdrawal from face-to-face interactions, and behavioral changes that improve during screen-free periods.

References

American Academy of Pediatrics. (2016). Media and Young Minds. Pediatrics, 138(5), e20162591. https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/138/5/e20162591/60503/Media-and-Young-Minds

Common Sense Media. (2020). The Common Sense Census: Media Use by Kids Age Zero to Eight. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-kids-age-zero-to-eight-2020

Madigan, S., Browne, D., Racine, N., Mori, C., & Tough, S. (2019). Association Between Screen Time and Children’s Performance on a Developmental Screening Test. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(3), 244-250. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/fullarticle/2722666

Radesky, J. S., & Christakis, D. A. (2022). Digital Media and Young Children’s Learning: Knowns and Unknowns. JAMA Pediatrics, 176(9), 856-858. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2792743

Przybylski, A. K., & Weinstein, N. (2019). Digital Screen Time Limits and Young Children’s Psychological Well-being: Evidence From a Population-Based Study. Child Development, 90(1), 56-65. https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.13007

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12, 271-283. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335518301827

Valkenburg, P. M., & Piotrowski, J. T. (2017). Plugged In: How Media Attract and Affect Youth. Yale University Press. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300218879/plugged-in/

World Health Organization. (2019). Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241550536